Then they should be given the instruction sheet – sample attached – which will be of A4 size. The group of No. Ones who are given the role of senders should be given the task of making one from the other group (they will be receivers) draw the same diagram that No. Ones have drawn initially on the right hand side of the instruction sheet, by giving written instructions. They cannot give any pictorial directives. After the Senders’ finish writing down instructions their initial drawings should be collected and kept away. The pictures should no longer be projected on the screen. then the group, which has been waiting outside the hall, should be asked to come in. The senders should hand over the instruction sheets to the receivers. The sender should not be allowed to orally communicate with the receivers. But they should be encouraged to watch how the receivers proceed. Once the receivers have completed ‘their’ drawings the instruction sheets should be collected back and each drawing should be paired with its “original”. Each set should be shown to the entire group with trainers comments whenever appropriate.

Day Three (Forenoon) -Stress Management

Objectives

The principal objectives of this unit are to familiarize the participants with the knowledge regarding the various causes of stress, type of stresses and above all the various stress management strategies.

Content

Introduction to Stress Management - Causes of Stress - Impact of Stress -Managing Stress

Methods

Lecture method Group discussion Relaxation Techniques (Demonstration)

Time Schedule

30 minutes -Introduction 45 minutes -Causes of Stress 45 minutes -Impact of Stress 45 minutes - Managing Stress 15 minutes -Question and answers session

Instruction to trainers

Introduction of Stress Management

This is the first topic of the units namely the Introduction. The following factors should be covered.

1) What is Stress?

2) Relevance of Stress

3) Difference between Distress and Eustress

4) General Adaptation Syndrome

Causes of Stress

The second part of the unit is aimed at analysing the Causes of Stress. This analysis will be through a group discussion. The whole class can be divided in to three groups. Each group has to analyse the causes along the following dimensions.

1. Organisational based stress

2. Family based stress

3. Social stresses

After the discussion each group has to present a brief report and the presentation will be again followed by evaluations and discussion

Impact of Stress

This part of the unit is aimed at analysing the impact of stress up on individual and organisation. Some of the topics covered in this sections include areas such as: (1) Decision Making (Indecision, Delay, Error), (2) Performance (Absenteeism, Sabotage, Productivity) (3) Behavioural Area (Excessive smoking, Excessive drinking, Excessive in take off coffee or tea, Tremor, Drumming Fingers, Nail Bitting, Body Movements, Accidents (4) Psychological (Poor Memory, Poor Concentration, Sleep problems, Anxiety, Fear, Inability to relax, Depression, Suicide, Anger (5) Psychosomatic (Hyper tension, Peptic Ulcer, Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Tension head-ache, Bronchial Asthma, Diabetes, Neuro Dermatitis)

Managing Stress

This section involves a theoretical as well as a practical session. The theoretical session is aimed at increasing the awareness of participants regarding the influence of perceptual changes, personality, proper exercise, time management and the avoidance of long working hours in reducing the experience of stress.

The practical session involves the imparting of training in Yoga, Mediation and Relaxation. It is essential that this session should be handled by an expert in these areas.

Day Three (Afternoon) -Group Dynamics &Team Building

Objectives

To improve managerial capabilities of participants through team building and group dynamics.

Contents

Concept of team – concept of group - synergy – principles of intra-group dynamics relevant in the context of team building and management. How to build and manage effective teams.

Method

Lecutre method Games Group work

Time Schedule

1. The exercise of broken squares -45 minutes

2. Discussion -30 minutes

3. Participants’ experience sharing -30 minutes

4. Group work on developing an effective -45 minutes strategy for team building and management

5. Presentation of reports -30 minutes

------------------------Total -180 minutes

Instructions to Trainers

- A unique feature of the session on team building and management will be that a game/exercise will precede discussions

- The exercise of broken squares will be conducted without announcing that it is part of a session on team building and management

- To conduct the exercise of broken squares the group will be divided in to teams of five members. If the group is not exactly divisible by five, the remaining members should be given the role of observers. They should be briefed before commencement of the exercise and should be given a chance to present their observations after conclusion of the exercise.

-

Each team of participants (consisting of five members) should be directed to sit around a table.

-

Each team should be given a set of 5 covers each containing 3 pieces of thick paper.

- The teams should be told that they have to complete a group task. The task involves making 5 squares, one in front of each person, using the pieces of paper which they get from the covers.

- It should also be announced that though it will be possible to make 5 squares using the 15 pieces that each team gets, it may or may not be possible for an individual to make squares with the pieces she/he gets from her/his cover.

-

The following rules of the game should be stated very clearly:

• Participants should not express their desire to get pieces from others in any manner.

• Grabbing pieces from others is prohibited.

• Participant should not talk at all during the exercise

• Sub contracting is not allowed ie., one person should not make squares for others.

• No one is captain or leader ie., every member has the same status as a group member

• Participants should refrain from mutilating the pieces in any way. ie, bending, folding, tearing, cutting etc. of pieces are not allowed.

• However, participants are free to accept pieces from any or all of the four other members if they offer pieces on their own.

• Participants are free to offer their pieces to any or all of the other four members.

• It is not obligatory on the part of the participants to offer pieces in return to the ones they accept.

• Participants may not get pieces from others in exchange of the ones given.

• No participant should offer directions to others even non-verbally.

• It would be accepted that teams have completed their tasks, when they have five squares, one in front of each member.

-

The trainer (and other observers if any) should move around closely observing what happens in each team.

-

The exercise should be wound up either after all teams have completed the task or the lapse of 30 minutes after commencement of the task (excluding briefing) whichever is earlier.

-

The exercise should be followed by a discussion highlighting important aspects of intra-group dynamics significant in the conduct of team building and management. While analysing what happened during the game, care should be taken to cover the following.

(i)

States of mind undergone by participants when they took part in the game

(ii)

feelings and emotions experienced by participants during the game

(iii) behaviours exhibited by participants during square building

The following points should essentially be covered.

(i)

Failure to perceive the group-work as it should be. The moment a square is ready in front them, some participants may withdraw from the group-work assuming that they have nothing more to contribute.

(ii)

Playing the role of blockers to group. Eg. Participants making squares in the wrong way (ie., the use of prices to make a square in such a way which will prevent all five people making squares)

(iii) Consumption of more than due share of organizational resources (making squares with more than three pieces and remaining unwilling to dismantle them even after observing that there are not sufficient pieces for everybody to make squares).

(iv)

Satisfaction with limited achievements (Participants making small squares with less than 3 pieces and remaining satisfied with them even after observing that others are making squares much bigger than theirs).

(v)

Collecting resources and idling them (same participants go on accepting pieces whenever someone offers, irrespective of whether they need it or not. They accumulate pieces which they cannot use and prevent others from using them)

(vi)

Hard but unproductive work (some participants go on collecting and distributing pieces. they even try to give directions to others breaking the rules of the same. Lot of activity takes place but squares are not being formed).

(vii) Realising the need for communication (many participants develop a feeling “If I could communicate”)

(viii) Realising the need for well defined leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) (while they are engaged in this group task where no one is selected/appointed/elected as a leader, many may develop a feeling, “If we had a leader”)

Day Four (Forenoon) -Conflict Management

Objectives

To familiarise participants with the importance, influence and methods of managing conflict.

Content

Introduction to conflict – What is Conflict – Goal Conflict – Cognitive Conflict and Emotional Conflict (affection) . Levels of conflict –Intrapersonal Conflict – Interpersonal Conflict – Intragroup Conflict – Inter-group Conflict – Intra-Organisational Conflict. Managing Conflict and Conflict Resolution Styles.

Method

Lecture Method Games Group Discussion

Time Schedule

45 minutes -Introduction 45 minutes -Games 45 minutes -Levels of Conflict 45 minutes -Managing Conflict

Instruction to Trainers

Introduction

What is Conflict? Merits and demerits of Conflict? Is Conflict essential? Importance of Goal Conflict, Cognitive Conflict and Emotional Conflict – all those should be discussed.

Levels of Conflict

Awareness regarding levels of conflict can be provided to the participants through the analysis of the results of a Management Game.

Games

The participants are made to assemble in a room and the trainer will introduce a concept and ask the participants to mention this qualities or attributes of that concept. For eg., Leader – what are the qualities of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com)?

The members are encouraged to mention their own ideas regarding the concept. After the identification of each quality all the participants are required to note it down. In this manner a list of qualities/attributes will be prepared. Then each participant is encouraged to rank the qualities on the basis of his/her evaluation. Thus all the participants at this stage will be having a ranked list of qualities or attributes of the concept introduced by the trainers.

In the next stage the participants are divided into two groups. Then each group is asked to make a critical examination of the attributes and come out with a consensual ranking of the attributes. So at the end of this stage the two groups will each have a consensually ranked list of qualities or attributes.

Then from each group 4 participants will be identified as Spokespersons and they will be seated in front, others seated at their back side. The Spokespersons alone will speak others can of course give ideas to their respective Spokespersons. Each group is then instructed to enforce their ranking upon the other group without any sign of yielding. This is meant to evoke heated arguments, discussions so on and so forth. Finally both the groups will remain sticking to their own list.

In the next stage, the trainer will be selecting 4 other persons from each group and they will be instructed to settle the problem. The change in the attitude of this group can be clearly identified.

In the total game, when the participants are making individual ranking of the listed attributes what they are experiencing is intrapersonal conflict. This is actually what is being experienced by an officer in an Organization while he is involved in the process of decision making.

When the participants were in the two groups with their own ranked list they were in a state of intra group conflict.

In the stage of heated discussion between the two groups, the participants were experiencing intergroup conflict.

In all these situations, the existence interpersonal conflict can clearly be identified. After analysing the results of the games, the participants should be provided with maximum informations pertaining to the 4 different types of conflicts identified earlier.

Intra-Organizational Conflict

Four types of intra-organizational conflict exist: (1) vertical conflict (2) horizontal conflict (3) line-staff conflict and (4) role conflict. Participants should also be given informations regarding different aspects of these conflicts.

Managing Conflict

This part of the Unit is aimed at analysing the techniques of Managing Conflict. The whole class can be divided into 3 groups. Each group has to come out with suggestions regarding methods of resolving/overcoming conflicts.

After the discussion, each group has to present a brief report and the presentation will be followed by evaluation and discussion.

Day Four (Afternoon) -Performance Appraisal

Objectives

To clarify the concepts related to Performance Appraisal and create an awareness regarding its method of implementation in the context of its contribution to Personality Development.

Content

Performance Appraisal and overview - Techniques of Performance Appraisal - What should performance appraisal measure and who should do it - Application of Performance Appraisal - Designing a Performance Appraisal System

Time Schedule

35 minutes -Performance Appraisal and Overview 30 minutes -Techniques of Performance Appraisal 45 minutes -What should performance appraisal measure 30 minutes -Application of Performance Appraisal 45 minutes -Designing a Performance Appraisal System

Instructions to Trainers

Performance Appraisal – an overview

This is the first topic of the Unit. The following points should be covered:

1) Concept of Performance Appraisal 2) Need for Performance Appraisal 3) Ways of Performance Appraisal

Methodology suggested : Lecture Duration : 35 minutes

Techniques of Performance Appraisal

This session should cover important Performance Appraisal Techniques and their relative merits and demerits.

Methodology suggested : Lecture

Duration : 30 minutes

What should Performance Appraisal measure and who should do it

b. Who should do it

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Methodology : Lecture-cum-discussion Duration : 45 minutes

Application of Performance Appraisal

1) Basis for reward and punishment 2) Basis for Personality Development

Methodology : Lecture-cum-discussion Duration : 30 minutes

Designing a Performance Appraisal System

Group Work

Development of a Performance Appraisal System for your organisation. 45 minutes to be apportion as suggested below:

10 minutes -Individual Enumerate points 10 minutes -Uninterupted Presentation by individuals 25 minutes -Group Discussion 15 minutes -Presentation and Discussion

Day Five (Forenoon) -Time Management

Objectives

To impart relevant knowledge, sharpen the requisite skills and orient attitudes of participants so that they become more efficient with regard to the management of time.

Contents

The concept of time and time management – uniqueness of time as a resource – the cost of time – importance of and need for time management – causes of time mismanagement – urgency addiction and time management matrix – hard work vs. smart work – demands on one’s time – different time management styles – time cheaters and beaters – goal setting and planning for long term time management – short term time management – good ideas for time management

– managing meetings effectively – steps towards better time management.

Methodology

Methodology shall consist of lectures, inventories, exercises, discussions and film show.

Time Schedule

1. Introductory lecture covering basic concepts -15 minutes

2. Estimating participants cost of time -10 minutes

3. Causes of time management -15 minutes (Lecture-cum-Discussion)

4. Smart work Vs. hard work -10 minutes (Lecture-cum-Discussion)

1. Demands on time and time management styles

2. (Lecture)
5. Identification of participant’s time management styles

6. The concept of time management matrix (lecture)

7. Time cheaters and beaters (inventory)

8. Long term and short term time management (Lecture)

9. Managing meetings (lecture)

10. Experience sharing (by participants)

11. Steps towards better time management (lecture-cum-discussion)

12. Action Planning (Group Exercise)

13. Presentation of Plans

Total

Instruction to Trainers

-20 minutes

-

10 minutes

-

10 minutes

-

10 minutes

-15 minutes

-10 minutes

-

15 minutes

-

15 minutes

-

15 minutes -10 minutes -----------------------180 minutes

During the introductory lecture itself developing time sensitivity among participants should be attempted or rather achieved. Participants should be made aware of the uniqueness of time as the only resource equally distributed among people. The following characteristics about time also will have to be highlighted.

(i)

non-retrievability

(ii)

non-reservability

(iii) irreplacability

(iv) irreversibility

Estimating cost of participants’ time may be done using the proforma suggested.

Enumeration of the causes of time mismanagement should basically be an outcome of discussion during which participants should be encouraged to generate ideas.

Participants should be made to distinguish between hard work and smart work citing examples from their own lives or situations familiar to them.

Identification of individual time management styles can also be done using the relevant proforma which will help classifying people in to the following 8 groups.

1. Balanced time managers

2. Those who do their things well

3. Those who do others things well

4. Those with good intentions but no productivity

5. Unrealistic dreamers

6. Those who are on a tread mill

7. Delightful but incompetent persons

8. Persons neither delightful nor competent

The concept of time management matrix should be an eye opener to everyone. The characteristics of, and differences between, the quadrant of quality and the quadrant of deception should be made clear to all concerned. The participants should be urged to become quadrant II (quality) oriented.

Use of the proforma Time Cheaters and Beaters can be expected to make participants aware of the time cheaters which affect them and the corresponding time beaters they can use to deal with them.

Discussion on long term and short term time management should provide participants with further theoretical base and pragmatic ideas for effective time management.

The lecture on managing meetings will be very useful for those with conference / leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) responsibilities. However, this section can be skipped during programmes where the participants do not have such responsibilities.

Experience sharing should precede the discussion session on “steps towards better time management”. The success and failures narrated during experience sharing should provide inputs/ideas for group discussion.

For the group exercise viz., Action Planning, participants should be divided in to group of 5 members and a leader selected and assigned responsibilities. At the end, each group should be made to present their reports.

Day Five (Afternoon) -Motivation

Objective

To make the participants aware of the multifaceted impact of the concept of Motivation upon efficient organizational functioning.

Contents

Introduction - Relevance and Types of Motivation - Theories of motivation - Analysis of Motivation - Motivating the subordinate.

Methodology

(1)

Lecture Method

(2)

Questionnaire Method

Time Schedule

30 minutes -Introduction 30 minutes -Relevance and types of Motivation 30 minutes -Motivating the subordinates 30 minutes -Analysis of Motivation

Instructions to Trainers

1. Introduction

The session relating to this topic should cover informations relating to different motivational concepts and the theories of Maslow Mc Clelland, Herzberg and so on.

2. Relevance and Types of Motivation

In this session participants should be provided with informations pertaining to the relevance of Motivation to performance. They should also be made aware of the different types of motivations such as Positive motivation, Negative or Fear motivation, Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation etc.

3. Analysis of Motivation

Through the use of case analysis and questionnaire the participants should be made aware of the operation of the different motivational concepts.

4. Motivating Subordinates

Through the use of active discussion with the participants, the trainers can make the participants informed about the methods by which motivational level of subordinates can be enhanced.

Day Five (Afternoon) -Evaluation and Valediction

Time Schedule (1 hour)

This session should be devoted to prepare an Action Plan and Evaluation.

It is expected to incorporate all possible ideas and suggestions that have evolved during the course of training.

An evaluation feed back regarding the merits and demerits of the module will also sought.

T.P.leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) QUESTIONNAIRE

Directions

The following items describe aspects of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) behaviour. Respond to each item according to what you would most likely act if you were the leader of a work group by circling the appropriate response given at the left of each statement.

Code Response A Always F Frequently O Occasionally S Seldom N Never

A F O S N 1. I would most likely act as the spokesman of the group

A F O S N 2. I would encourage overtime work

A F O S N 3. I would allow members complete freedom in their work

A F O S N 4. I would encourage the use of uniform procedures

A F O S N 5. I would permit the members to use their own judgement in solving problems

A F O S N 6. I would stress being ahead of competing groups

A F O S N 7. I would speak as the representatives of the group

A F O S N 8. I would needle members for greater effort

A F O S N 9. I would try out my ideas in the group

A F O S N 10. I would let the members do their work the way they think best

A F O S N 11. I would be working hard for a promotion

A F O S N 12. I would tolerate postponement and uncertainty

A F O S N 13. I would speak for the group if there were visitors

A F O S N 14. I would keep the work moving at a rapid pace

A F O S N 15. I would turn the members loose on a job(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) and let them go to it.

A F O S N 16. I would settle conflicts when they occur in the group

A F O S N 17. I would get swamped by details

A F O S N 18. I would represent the group at outside meetings.

A F O S N 19. I would be reluctant to allow the members any freedom of action.

A F O S N 20. I would decide what should be done and how it should be done.

I would push for increased production. I would let some members have authority which I could keep. Things would usually turn out as I had predicted. I would allow the group a high degree of initiative. I would assign group members to particular tasks. I would be willing to make changes. I would ask the members to work harder. I would trust the group members to exercise good judgement. I would schedule the work to be done I would refuse to explain my actions I would persuade others that my ideas are to their Advantage I would permit the group to set its own pace. I would urge the group to beat its previous records. I would act without consulting the group. I would ask that group members follow standard rules and regulations.

T.P.leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) SCORING SHEET

For every statement for which your response is either of the two indicated against each, you score one point. Mark each item by placing a √ if you score.

T Score P Score Item No Response Item No Response

1 A or F 2 A or F 3 A or F 4 5 A or F 6 A or F 7 A or F 8 S or N 9 A or F 10 A or F

11 A or F 12 S or N 13 A or F 14 A or F 15 A or F 16 A or F 17 S or N 18 S or N 19 S or N 20 A or F 21 A or F 22 A or F 23 A or F 24 A or F 25 A or F 26 A or F 27 A or F 28 A or F 29 A or F 30 S or N 31 A or F 32 A or F 33 A or F 34 S or N 35 S or N

Total Score Total Score (total No of √ s)

(Total No of √ s)

T.P.leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com)-STYLE PROFILE SHEET

Name Orgn

Directions: To determine your style of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com), mark your score on the concern for task dimension (T) on the left-hand arrow below. Next, move to the right hand arrow and mark your score on the concern for people-dimension (P). Draw a straight line that intersects the P and T scores. The point at which that line crosses the shared leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) arrow indicates your score on the dimension.

SHARED leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) RESULTS FROM BALANCING CONCERN FOR TASK AND CONCERN FOR PEOPLE

EXPLORING YOUR PERSONALITY

Show how frequently you do each of the following behaviours by placing (√) in the proper column opposite each item.

Reference: JONGEWARDM D & SEYER P C CHOOSING SUCCESS (Transactional Analysis on the job(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com)) Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Inc.1978

Now that you’ve filled out the questionnaire. Let’s score it. Here’s how to do it.

1. Give yourself a score for each question using this formula 4 points for “very frequently” 3 points for “frequently” 2 point for “sometimes” 1 point for “rarely” 0 points for “almost never”

2. Write your scores in the proper boxes in the chart. For example, if you answered question 1 with “sometimes,” you would put a “2” in the box indicated for question 1. If you answered “very frequently” for question 2, you would put a “4” in the box designated for question 2, and so on.

3. Add the numbers in each column and enter the totals in the spaces provided.

The total for the first column is your score for your CP (Controlling Parent). The total for the column labeled NP is your score for your Nurturing Parent, and so on.

CP - Controlling Parent NP – Nurturing Parent A - Adult NC – Natural Child LP - Little Professor AC - Adapted Child

PLEASE FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS

1. Read everything before doing anything, but work as rapidly as you can

1. Put you name and address in the space provided for:

2. Name:…………………………… Address:………………………….
2. Circle the world name in the second instruction

3. Write the name of your native place:……………………….

4. Now draw a circle around the title of this paper

5. Sign your name under the title

6. In sentence four, draw a circle around the word “native”.

7. Write the name of India’s Capital:……………………..

8. Underline all of sentence seven

9. Stand up for a few seconds (2 to 5 seconds will do)

10. Draw an “X” in the lower left hand corner of this paper

11. Draw a circle around the “X” you drew just now

12. Write the name of your husband or wife if you are married If not, write your father’s name:……………..

13. Draw a circle around the word “Capital” in sentence eight

14. Shout out loud your name when you get to this point

15. If you think you have followed instructions to this point, call out “I HAVE” in such way that everyone in the room can hear you.

16. Close your eyes and raise your left hand over your head

17. Write your designation

18. Count out loud and clear in your voice, backwards from ten to one.

19. Now that you have red the instructions carefully, do only what instructions one and twenty ask to do. Ignore all other directions.

Note: Please do not give this paper to anybody; make no comments or explanations If you have read this far, pretend that you are still writing. Let us see how many persons really follow instructions carefully.

SEPARATE FACT FROM INFERENCE

Read the narration carefully which follows. Then see how well you can distinguish a FACT from an INFERENCE.

Shama, a buyer with the XYZ company, was scheduled for a 10 O’Clock meeting in Singh’s office to discuss the terms of a large order. On the way to that office, the buyer slipped on a freshly waxed floor and as a result received a badly bruised leg. By the time Singh was notified of the accident, Shama was on the way to the hospital for X-ray. Singh called the hospital to enquire, but no one there seemed to know anything about Sharma. It is possible that Singh called the wrong hospital.

Examine the statements below. Without discussion, put a tick (√) mark against each statement as to whether it is a FACT or an INFERENCE (in the personal choice columns)

COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY-I (LISTENING)

1. Are you waiting impatiently for thee other person to shut up so that you can talk?

2. Are you in such a hurry to offer a solution that you don’t want to hear the problem?

3. Are you listening only for what you like to hear?

4. Do emotional blocks get in the way of your listening?

5. Do your thoughts take side excursions while the other person is talking?

6. Are you memorizing more details instead of getting the main points?

7. Do you quit listening when the subject matter gets difficult?

8. Do you have a negative attitude while listening?

9. Do you just pretend to listen? 10.Do you put yourself in the speaker’s place to understand what makes him/her say that? 11.Do you take into account that you and the speaker may not be discussing the same

question? 12.Are you alert for misunderstandings that could arise because the words don’t mean the same to you as they do to the speaker? 13.Do you try to find out what the argument is about? Whether there is a real difference of opinions or is it just a matter of stating the problem?

COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY-II (SPEAKING)

Are you careful to watch for signs of misunderstandings in your listener? Do you choose words that fit the listener’s intelligence and backgrounds? Do you think out directions before giving them? Do you breakdown orders in to small enough packages? If your listener does not ask questions about a new idea you are presenting, do you assume that he/she understands it? Do you speak distinctly? Control distractions as far as possible? Do you “bale” your thoughts before speaking so that you won’t ramble? Do you put the listener at ease? Do you encourage questions? Do you assume that you know what the other person has in his/her mind? Or do you ask questions to find out? Do you distinguish between facts and opinions? Do you stiffen up the opposition by contradicting his/her/their statements? Do you influence your listeners to be “Yes Sir”, “Yes Madam” or “Yes friend” people?

RATING SCALE FOR ASSESSING PERFORMANCE OF PRESENTATIONS

Name of Presenter:…………………………………………………………………..

HOW MUCH IS YOUR TIME WORTH?

Annual Salary Overhead Benefits Your Staff Salaries Their Ovhd & Benefits TOTAL 52 Weeks

(Rs/hr)

45 hrs/week

CAUSES OF TIME MISMANAGEMENT

Procrastination: The world procrastinate comes from the latin word for ‘tomorrow’. Procrastination can be defined as intentionally, habitually, and without good reason, putting off things that should be done now. Procrastination is the world’s number one time-waster.

Poor Delegation: Delegation means entrusting a task to another person, together with the authority to do it. Delegation is a gift of trust which will generate an answering trust. Both parties will benefit from good delegation. Poor delegation arises from a lack of trust. If you don’t entrust the other person with enough work to do, or you check everything they do too carefully, you are a poor delegator.

Organized Workplace: If you don’t have a properly organized workplace you can waste time trying to find the information you need to get your work done. Looking for a missing file is a good example of non value-added time!

Wasting Your Peak Time: You should do your hardest tasks when you are at your peak energy level.

Working Without Goals: If you don’t have goals, you can’t set priorities. If you can’t set priorities you will mismanage time.

DO NOT WORK HARD

But work ‘smart’. Working ‘smart’ means organizing yourself so that you invest your time only in value-added activities. These are activities which contribute toward achieving your goals and objectives.

There are three types of demand on your time:

Your time

Planning Doing

Planning : is organizing Doing : is carrying out the plan as decided Interacting : is working with other people

Interacting

An Inch of gold cannot buy an inch of time.

Urgent Not Urgent

TIME CHEATERS & BEATERS Time cheaters come in all shapes and sizes. They can be physical and mental, created by you or imposed upon you by other people. The important thing is to become aware of them and then you can earn to deal with them.

INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT IN GOVERNMENT

THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

TRAINING MODULE ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

READING MATERIAL

Sponsored by

Department of Personnel & Training Government of India & United Nation's Development Programme

Prepared by Dr.Chandraprasad Sreedhar, IMG, Trivandrum & Mr.Oommen Mathew, IMG, Kochi

CONTENTS

Page Number

1. leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) 1

2. Interpersonal Relations 11

3. Communication in Organizations 23

4. Stress Management 32

5. Group Dynamics and Team Building 51

6. Conflict Management 58

7. Performance Appraisal 64

8. Time Management 77

9. Motivation 87

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A question which many a novice in Management ask and experts echo is whether “Manager” and “Leader” are synonymous terms. Are the functions of the ‘Manager’ the same as those of the Leader? Are the two roles the same? Or, are they different? If they are – are there or rather aren’t there areas of functional similarities? To what extent do they differ in direction and/or magnitude?

Before attempting to answer the million dollar question “Are all leaders managers or are all managers leaders? It will be prudent to clarify the concepts of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) and management.

An extremely simplistic yet profoundly meaningful definition of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) states it as the “Phenomenon of one person influencing the thinking or action or both of another person or groups of persons”.

Management has been defined in various ways by different authors. In fact, there exists almost as many definitions for management as there are authors on the topic. There is neither the scope nor the need to examine the various definitions of management in this discussion. However, two of them may be considered. One of the earliest universally accepted definitions of management considered it as the “process of getting things done through and by people”. One of the modern definitions of management describes it as “the process of ensuring effectiveness and efficiency in achieving goals or objectives”.

From the above discussion, it is clear that whenever one influences the thinking or action or both of another person or a group, he/she is a leader and the phenomenon of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) exists. This is so irrespective of what the “influence” aims or achieves. Even if the followers are “influenced” for some antisocial activities, the phenomenon involved is leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) and the one exhibiting it is a leader. Managers have to influence their “people” for achieving organizational objectives, which, we assume, to be morally right and legally straight. So, all managers have a leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) role to play. But all that every leader does may not be very “Managerial”. In short, all managers are leaders, but all leaders need not necessarily be managers. It should be remembered that this statement is made considering the roles of “leaders” and “managers” and not with reference to any individual with a managerial title or acceptance as a leader.

Categories of leaders: Based on the functions they perform, leaders can be classified into:

(i)

Entrepreneurial

(ii)

Administrative and

(iii) Political

(i)

Entrepreneurial Leaders: As the term indicates, these are leaders who build organizations, these institution builders perform the tasks of initiation and structuring. They organize the required resources and put them in to effective and efficient use to create institutions of various sizes, nature and scope eg. Trade unions, hospitals, schools, colleges, places of worship, cultural organizations etc. Entrepreneurial leaders are highly motivated self starters who can get along reasonably well with a wide range of people with whom they can co-operate and from whom they can get co-operation. They will not be dispirited with setbacks and will not take “no” for an answer.

(ii)

Administrative leaders: These are leaders whose performance will be at its peak when they are put in charge of running organizations they work for the maintenance and growth of the organizations, they plan, organize, staff, direct and control the organizations which may be expected to “safe” in their hands. They ensure that right men occupy right positions and that tasks are carried out effective and efficiently. They undertake environmental scanning and do SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis, based on which they define and redefine the mission of their organizations, set targets and objectives and formulate policies and strategies. They have a clear idea of what the organization should be at present and where it should be in the future.

(iii) Political leaders: By “political leaders” are meant those who act as representatives or spokesmen of their groups and strive for the redressal of the grievances of their groups in general and its members in particular. Many of them act on an ‘ad hoc’ basis not being very visible normally but appearing on the scene all of a sudden when a problem crops up, the tackling of which requires their attention. They may even leave the scene once the issue has been settled.

Discussion on Leader Categories:

In every individual, all kinds of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) skills may be present but their relative concentrations vary. The implication for the top management is that organizational success depends on allocating tasks and responsibilities to individuals based on their talents and capabilities. The message for the individual is that one should identify where his/her predominant leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) skills lie and as far as possible try to seek tasks which are in tune with them. When there is little scope for choosing tasks in accordance with ones leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) endowments, developing skills required for the tasks at hand become imperative.

leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) Styles

Based on “how” a leader performs his/her tasks, various leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) styles can be identified, viz.

authoritarian

(i)

-autocratic paternalistic

(ii)

-democratic

(iii) -laissez faire (free rein)

The basis for the above classification is two fold, viz.,

(i)

-mode of decision making

(ii)

-manner of implementation

(i)

Autocratic leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style : As the term suggests, this is a leader-centred style where followers are reduced to insignificance. The autocratic leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style itself has two variations, viz., authoritarian and paternalistic.

(a)

Authoritarian leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) Style : The authoritarian leader takes all decisions by himself/herself and will try to implement them even resorting to the use of force or coercion. The authoritarian leader is only concerned about the “tasks” but not the “people” with whom the tasks have to be achieved. If his/her followers/subordinates approach him/her with a problem, they face in implementing the leaders decisions or carrying out his/her orders, the leader takes the stand, I am not bothered about your problems. You …………… expedite and report”.

(b)

Paternalistic leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style: Leaders who exhibit this style assume the parental role for themselves. They also take all decisions like the authoritarian leaders, but when it comes to

implementation they resort to tact and diplomacy rather than force and coercion. The paternalistic leader considers his followers as immature children incapable of making decision and needing about the task as well as the people. If subordinates approach a paternalistic leader with their problems, they can expect empathic understanding and consideration. The paternalistic leader may be expected to sit with the subordinates to sort out their proablems and help them reach or identify solutions.

(ii) Democratic leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style: The style of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) which recognises and respects every member of the group or team as an individual with capabilities, rights and responsibilities and a potential contributor to the group processes including task achievements, is called democratic leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style. Where democratic leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style is followed, decision making and implementation are consultative and participative processes. It should be appreciated that the situation is not akin to one, where say, in a group of w00, what 51 people suggest is accepted and the opinions and suggestions of the remaining 49 are rejected mercilessly. That at best be termed majocracy. Where democratic leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style is practised, one is free to express his/her opinions as everybody’s opinions and their right to express them are respected. A member gets an opportunity to understand why his/her suggestions are not accepted as the group’s decision, even when that is the case. The ultimate group decision is everybody’s. When one had a say in the making of a decision, a high level of commitment may be expected to be exhibited by the group members for its achievement.

(iii) Laissez faire or free rein leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style: Whether one follows autocracy or democracy as a leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style, the leader will be performing the basic functions of providing direction and control to the group. The autocratic and democratic leaders differ only in the manner in which they perform the direction and control functions. Apart from this, there are leaders who follow a policy of “no intervention” in group processes. Their style is called “Laissez faire” or “free rein”. There are behavioural scientists who even object to considering this as “leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com)” as the “leader” does not discharge the basic functions of direction and control. However, one may find many in leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) positions practising this style.

Discussion on leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) Styles

To decide on the “best leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style” one has to enumerate the merits and demerits of each, evaluate their effectiveness and efficiency and more than anything else, see whether they deliver the goods”. Analysis of the various leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) styles conclusively proves that there does not exist something as the “best” leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style. If there existed one, it should have proved successful under all circumstances. It can be observed that different leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) styles produce the best results under different conditions and circumstances. That which results in the most favourable and desirable outcome under any particular circumstances is the “right” leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style in that context. The success of the manager depends on his/her ability to identify the “right” leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style in that context. The success of the manager depends on his/her ability to identify the “right” leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style in any given situation and then exhibit enough flexibility and adaptability to practice that style.

Sources of Leader Influence on Followers

What provides a leader with the capacity to influence followers? Why will subordinates respond to the influence attempts of a leader by doing that the leader intends or wishes them to do? In other words, what is the source of the leader’s power over subordinates? Five distinct sources of leader power or influence have been identified. Any particular leader may have at his or her disposal any combination of these different sources of power.

1. Reward Power refers to the leader’s capacity to reward followers. To the extent that a leader possesses and controls rewards that are valued by subordinates, the leader’s power increases. Rewards at a leader’s disposal fall into two categories. Rewards such as praise, recognition and attention are sources of personal power possessed by the leader as an individual. In addition, a leader also usually controls certain organizational rewards, such as pay raises, promotions and other perquisites. These are sources of power that depend upon the leader’s position in the organization.

2. Coercive power is the flip side of reward power and refers to the leader’s capacity to coerce or punish followers. Sources of coercive power also break down into personal and positional components. Leaders personally possess coercive power to the extent that followers experience criticism or lack of recognition from their leader as unpleasant or punishing. In addition, leaders possess coercive power to the extent that their position permits them to administer organizational sources of punishment (such as demotion, with holding of pay increases or firing) to followers.

1. Legitimate power refer to the power a leader possesses as a result of occupying a particular position or role in the organization. In every organization, certain types of requests and directions issued by

2. leaders to subordinates are viewed to be legitimate and valid. Subordinates are obligated to comply with such requests because of the norms, policies, and procedures accepted as legitimate by all members of the organization. Legitimate power is clearly a function of the leader’s position in the organization and is completely independent of any of the leader’s personal characteristics.
3. Expert power refers to power that a leader possesses as a result of his or her knowledge and expertise regarding the tasks to be performed by subordinates. Subordinates are most likely to respond positively to a leader’s attempts to influence their behaviour if they view the leader as a competent and in possession of knowledge and information regarding effective task performance that they themselves lack. The possession of expert power by a leader obviously depends upon the personal characteristics of the leader (ie., his or her personal expertise) and is not determined by the formal position that the leader occupies in the organization.

4. Referent power is dependent upon the extent to which subordinates identify with, look up to and wish to emulate the leader. The more that subordinates admire and identify with the leaders, the greater the leader’s referent power over subordinates. Referent power, like expert power, is totally dependent upon the personal characteristics of the leader and does not depend directly upon the leader’s formal organizational position.

Current Issues in leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com)

In addition to focusing on the different powers discussed above, leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) researchers have also recently identified a number of new and important issues that deserve our attention.

leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) as Mutual Influence

The very term leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) naturally serves to draw our attention to leaders themselves and focuses our interest on the ways in which leaders influence their followers. As a result, research on leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) has tried to understand how different types of leaders and different types of leader behaviours cause follower to react in different ways.

An important contribution of recent research on leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) has been to point out the shortsightedness of this view of leader-follower relations. While it is no doubt true that leaders can and do influence their followers, it is also true that leaders and followers engage in interaction with one another, which necessarily implies the existence of mutual influence. In other words, not only is it true that leaders influence followers, but it is equally true that followers influence leaders.

Constraints on leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) Behaviour

In thinking about leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) as mutual influence process we are taking in to account the fact that the behaviour of subordinates has a casual influence upon the behaviour of the leader. In other words, leaders do not decide how they are going to behave in total isolation from their subordinates. Leader must select and adjust their leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style in light of how their subordinates are performing and responding. But acknowledging that the behaviour of subordinates can influence how leaders behave raises the question of what other factors may be influencing and constraining what leaders do. In fact, it turns out that leaders are far from totally free and unencumbered in choosing their leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) style.

Subordinate Behaviour

As was pointed out in our discussion of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) as a mutual influence process, the evidence is quite clear that the performance of subordinates has a critical casual impact upon that a leader does and how he or she behaves toward followers.

Characteristics of Subordinates

In addition to what subordinates do and how they perform, other identifiable traits, or characteristics, of subordinates may influence the leader’s behaviour as well as the behaviour of the subordinates themselves. For example, a leader may behave differently toward males and females, older and younger people, and those with similar as opposed to different personal backgrounds from his or her own.

Characteristics of the Leader

The leader’s abilities and personal characteristics obviously influence and constrain what the leader does and how he or she behaves toward subordinates. On the ability side, task relevant knowledge and skill, as well as supervisory skills and sensitivities, will have an important impact. In terms of trait, personality characteristics such as assertiveness, dominance, and self-confidence all have an influence on leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) behaviour.

Leaders Superiors

How leaders treat their subordinates is strongly influenced by how the leaders themselves are treated by their own immediate superiors. Superiors serve both as role models for the leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) behaviour of individuals toward their own subordinates and as sources of rewards and punishments. Leaders with immediate superiors who preach, practice, and reward a participative management style, for example, are unlikely to treat their subordinates in a directive and authoritarian fashion.

Leaders Peers

As in almost all thing, peers have an important influence upon how leaders behave. Peer pressure has a potent homogenizing impact upon leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) behaviour in an organization. Other managers in an organisation ar likely to exert both direct and indirect pressure on individual leaders to behave toward their subordinates in a fashion that is consistent with that practised by other managers at that level in the organisation.

Organizational Policies, Norms and Climate

Some organizations are characterised by a very open, democratic, and participative management style. Such an organizational climate and policy ill obviously influence a leader to behave as a participative manager. Very different leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) behaviours would be expected in an organization characterised by a very closed and authoritarian policy of management.

Nature of Subordinates – Tasks

The nature of the tasks that subordinates are performing also influences the behaviour of leaders toward subordinates. A very vague and ambiguous task such as developing the design of a new product from scratch is bound to elicit different types of leadership(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) behaviour than is a highly structured and routine task such as producing a particular number of units on an assembly line.

INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS (TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS IN MANAGEMENT: TOWARDS PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT)

Introduction

All of us are social beings and interact with others in the process of satisfying our human needs and achieving our goals. In management, irrespective of your level, you have to interact with others – peers, superiors and subordinates. And most importantly, in some organizations, with general public. You may have to communicate with people of different sexes, ages, education, skills, personalities and temperaments. Ability to understand the nature and dynamics of interactions with others will help an individual to become more effective communicator – which means more positive respect for self better performance and achievement of organizational goals, more satisfied and committed employees, effective relationships with superiors and peers, more satisfied consumers or clients.

What is Transactional Analysis? What does T/A do? What does T/A not do? What are the dynamics of T/A? How can I become more effective with the use of T/A?

What is Transactional Analysis?

“Transactional Analysis (T/A) is one of the tools developed by behavioural scientists which is used for analysis of transactions” or understanding of communications that occur between people. It is a rational approach to understanding behaviour and is based on the assumption that any person can learn to trust himself or herself, think rationally, make independent decisions, and express feelings.

“Transactional Analysis” is a tool but also a complete theory of personality, containing techniques of psychotherapy for personal and social growth. A “transaction” means any exchange or interaction that occurs between two or more persons.

Transactional analysis concerns itself with the kinds of communication – both verbal and non-verbal – that occur between people. The emphasis of Transactional Analysis is upon positive communication.

Transactional Analysis is widely utilised as a consultation method in educational programmes, social institutions, business, hospitals, churches, government organizations, and other organizations. The late Eric Berne, M.D., the principal innovator and developer of Transactional Analysis, began experimenting with his ideas by applying them to group psychotherapy, but more recently it is widely used in family, couples and individuals work.

What does Transactional Analysis do or not do?

Transactional Analysis increases understanding of self and others. It decreases tendency to be critical of self and others. Transactional Analysis helps reduces stress, frustration and anxiety levels!

A few hours exposure to Transactional Analysis is not necessarily going to result in any person being transformed in to a happy and an effective person. Transactional Analysis does not erase all human relations difficulties. All emotional problems won’t be solved with a brief training period and traditional way of doing things that may be non-productive. Lot will depend upon the trainer. There are several who present themselves as experts. These people do more harm than good. Many companies have successfully incorporated Transactional Analysis training in to their overall personnel development programmes. These organizations represent private and public sector industries. State Governments, police systems, educational institutions, municipalities, and professional associations. The benefit which an organization derives from Transactional Analysis are better process diagnosis; clearer problem analysis; reduced non-communication: new tools for selecting people for entry and promotion; and less psychological pollution.

Structural Analysis

According to Transactional Analysis theory, everyone’s personality has three parts, called ego states. These ego states are named Parent, Adult, and Child. When we capitalize these words, we are talking about ego states rather than real parents, adults or children. Structural analysis involves analyzing the personality to discover the nature of our ego states. You can use structural analysis to better understand who you are and how you got that way. It will help you learn about the various sources of thoughts, feelings and opinions in your personality. Knowing your personality better can add to your effectiveness on the job(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com). i) The Parent Ego State

Every one develops a Parent ego state when as children they absorb certain attitudes and ways of behaving from parental figures. When you feel, think, or act as you saw your parents (or other authority figures) act when you were little, you are in your Parent ego state. While in your Parent, you may act in either a controlling, sometimes critical way or in a nurturing, sometimes loving way. Here are some examples of statements you are likely to make while in your Parent.

-Controlling Parent: “Nobody can leave until this report is finished”

- Nurturing Parent: “I’m sorry you’re not feeling well today. Would you like to go over to the nurse’s office and get some help? I’ll take care of your station”.

While in our Parent we respond automatically almost as if a tape recording were playing in our heads and directing our words and actions. For this reason, we often use the phrase “Parent tapes” to refer to:

- dialogue from Parent figures stored in our heads, and

- automatic responses we make while in our Parent ego state

ii) The Adult Ego State

Although we respond automatically when in our Parent, we respond analytically when in our Adult. Whenever you are gathering information, reasoning things out, estimating probabilities, and so on, you are in your Adult ego state. While in this ego state you are cool and collected: you make decisions unemotionally. You just want the facts. The Adult ego state has nothing to do with age. Little children have Adult ego states too! For example, when four-year-old Kristi says, “I bet Jeff is home – I see his car,” she is using her budding Adult, since she is calmly estimating probabilities on the basis of facts.

iii) The Child Ego State

Yes, even though you’re an adult, you have a Child inside you. While in your Child ego state, you feel and act like the little person you once were. Your Child has all of the feelings and impulses of a newborn. It also includes your mental recordings of your:

- early experiences

- reactions to these experiences, and

- learned view of yourself and other people

Free or Natural Child (FC or NC)

This is the source of our spontaneity, energy and curiosity, with all our potential for life. It represents the way we are when we are born – natural, loving, carefree, adventurous and trusting – with all our capacities for leading a joyful and meaningful existence. This part of us knows no rules and consequently operates without regard for others and is unconcerned about their reactions. Witness the behaviour of the twelvemonth-old exploring its environment! Of course, it would be impossible to maintain the structure of a society on such a basis, and without some adaptations.

In fact, in many grown-ups the adaptations are so extensive that they rarely use their Free Child. Some examples of the expression of the Free Child in an organization are: the joy of a major breakthrough in research and the fun at an office party (alcohol first ‘strips away’ the Parent, then the Adult!).

Adapted Child

As suggested, it does not seem possible to live in a continuous Free Child state and live with other people at the same time. From an early age, we make adaptations to help us get along with and get attention from authority figures, most notably our own parents. Some of these may develop in line with general practice in our society, eg., specific modes of eye and body contact; saying ‘please’, ‘thank you’ and ‘sorry’ at the appropriate times; not making personal comments about others in public.

Note how uncomfortable we often feel with those who have not adapted to these culturally agreed ways of behaving. Many more adaptations are unique to the particular family and its situation, and are important in marking us out as individuals. Some examples that create problems in adulthood and are relevant to organizations are compliance, procrastination and rebellion.

Compliance

Some individuals learn when they are young that the way to get along is always to say ‘yes’. Their problem in adulthood is saying ‘yes’ when their better judgement, experience and knowledge suggests that arguing the point and asserting themselves would be more appropriate. Some personal and organizational disasters might have been avoided if some people had not been so compliant in the past. (Of course, some people in power want nothing better than for others to do exactly what they are told!)

Procrastination

Some people learn when they are young that a good way to get attention is to procrastinate. Consider these examples from family life:

‘C’mon, get a move on, or we’ll miss the shops!’ ‘Look, put that doll down, tie your shoe laces up and let’s get going. You’re making us late again!’

If a child decides on this basis that delaying gets attention, in adulthood the individual may still be indulging in this behaviour. Certainly, being late is a good way to get attention in organizations (albeit negative) and it may use up more energy, money and time than it is worth (clock cards, counselling interviews, disciplinary interviews etc). Flexitime is no guarantee of cure.

Rebellion

Many children only get attention when they are ‘naughty’. Such individuals in adulthood may continue this behaviour by seeking bosses and/or institutions (eg., banks, local government, the police) to constantly fight and rebel against.

Little Professor

Another functional aspect of the Child ego state is frequently introduced and used, although its relationship to the other two is unclear. This is the Little Professor, the intuitive part of us that senses things about other people in a flash. This part of us has those brilliant, non-logical insights giving us solutions to problems that typify some of the major breakthrough in the growth of scientific knowledge.

Transactions and its Analysis

Transactional analysis is related with the way in which individuals interact with each other. It explains the mechanism that takes place when people are having conversation or are trying to exchange their thoughts, feelings and ideas with each other. Thus, Transactional Analysis essentially refers to the analysis of interactions between people. According to Transactional Analysis, transactions is stimulus plus response (S+R). If two or more people encounter each other, sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called the “transactional stimulus”. Another person will then say or do something which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called transaction response. Transactional Analysis involves the study of the social transactions between people and it deals with determining which part of the multiple-natured individual is being activated Parent, Adult or Child.

Transactions and its Types

Normally there are three types of transactions:

(i) Complementary Transactions

A transaction is complementary when communication continues on parallel lines between individuals and the lines of stimulus and response are parallel. Thus, the message transmitted from one ego-state elicits an expected and appropriate response from the proper ego-state of the other individual. The transactions are complementary because both are acting in the perceived and expected ego-states. Usually, in such a case, both individuals are satisfied, everyone feels OK and the communication is complete.

Complementary transactions can take place between A-A, P-C, P-P and so on.

(ii) Crossed Transactions

The lines of stimulus and Response cross each other in case of crossed transactions. Whenever the stimulus and response cross on the P-A-C transactional diagram, communication stops. Transactions become uncomplimentary. The message sent by one ego-state is responded to from an incompatible, unexpected ego-state of another person. The inappropriate response generates feelings of hurt and anger and the individuals, instead of coming closer, divert from each other. Crossed transactions are the source of much interpersonal conflict in an organisation. They inhibit free flow of ideas, free thinking, creativity and social interactions. Crossed transactions have many possible dysfunctional consequences for the organisation.

(iii) Ulterior Transactions

The ulterior type of transactions are most complex because the communication has double meaning as more than ego-states are involved in them. When ulterior message is sent, the literal and intent meanings are not one and the same. Ulterior message is often disguised in a socially acceptable way. On the surface level, the communication has a clear Adult message, whereas it carries a hidden message on the psychological level. Ulterior transactions like crossed transactions are undesirable as they damage interpersonal relationships.

Strokes

You’ve seen that transactions can be open, blocked, or ulterior. It’s also important to recognize that whenever two people are transacting, they are exchanging “strokes”. What are strokes? To help you understand that term, let’s look at an important discovery made by Rene Spitz. Spitz found that keeping infants fed and in a clean environment was not enough. Such infants became weak and almost seemed to shrivel up if they were not cuddled and stroked. Infants who are touched very little may become physically and mentally retarded; those not touched at all seem to “give up” and die. Before Spitz discovered this, doctors often puzzled at the high death rate in orphanage nurseries. Today in such nurseries “grandmothers” and “grandfathers” volunteer to come in and just cuddle infants.

In Transactional Analysis language, the term “stroke” refers to the giving of some kind of recognition to a person. This may or may not involve physical touching. As we grow from infancy into childhood and then adulthood, we do not entirely lose our need for stroking. Part of our original need for physical stroking seems to be satisfied with symbolic stroking. We no longer need constant cuddling, but we still need attention. When we receive a stroke, we may choose to feel either good or bad. If we choose to feel good, we might think of the stroke as a “warm fuzzy” (or positive stroke). On the flip side, if we choose to feel bad, we can think of it as a “cold prickly” (or negative stroke).

Since we have a basic need for strokes, we will work hard to get them. For example, ignored children will engage in all sorts of creative acts to get stroked. Often such children quickly learn that they can get strokes by:

-talking in a loud, whiny, high-pitched voice, -spilling milk on a clean table cloth, and

- injuring themselves

A child who carries out one of these actions is likely to get a cold prickly (negative stroke). But it seems to make no difference to a stroke-deprived child. To such a child, any kind of stroke is better than none at all: a cold prickly is better than nothing! The same is true for adults who work in a stroke-deprived environment.

Example

Lennie, a shipping clerk in a small mail-order firm, worked alone. Yet he got a lot of strokes from Kevin, his supervisor. Kevin often stopped by Lennie’s work station just to chat. These strokes were not usually given for any particular job(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) performance since Lennie’s job(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) was rather routine and didn’t require any special skills. However, Kevin did compliment Lennie for his consistent performance.

Then one day Kevin was promoted. Lennie’s new supervisor, Laura, had a different approach. She didn’t stop to chat with her subordinates and spoke to them only when she was dissatisfied with their work.

Life positions

Another way of looking at relationships between people is through the concept of ‘life position’, sometimes referred to as the basic position or existential position. A person’s life position at any given time expresses in some way just how that individual is relating to others in terms of thinking, feeling and behaving. There are four basic life positions, shown below referred to as the OK corral.

OK Corral

I’m not OK I’m OK

You’re OK You’re OK

I’m not OK I’m OK

You’re not OK You’re not OK

Examples of Life Positions

The idea of life positions can be demonstrating the following examples.

1. ‘Hey, we did a good job(Buy now from http://www.drugswell.com) there’, says the boss.

2. ‘Yes, things ar really going well for us now’, says the subordinate (I’m OK, you’re OK)
1. ‘Your work is not up to the standard I need in this department!’ says the boss (I’m OK, you’re not OK)

2. ‘I wish I could keep on top of things the way you can’, says the subordinate (I’m not OK, you’re OK)

3. ‘Well, I don’t know what to do and you don’t know what to do. What a mess!’ says the boss. (I’m not OK, you’re not OK)

Characteristics of the Life Positions

I’M OK, YOU’RE OK (I + U+)

This is sometimes referred to as the get on with position. People occupying this position are optimistic, confident and happy about work and life. They use time constructively, doing the things they most want to. They exchange strokes freely with those they meet, accepting the significance of other people, and decline to put themselves or others down. They are assertive in reaching their aims, ie., they state and elaborate their own views and needs rather than attack other people’s views and needs. Their dominant working style with others is collaboration and mutual respect, sharing authority and responsibility and listening constructively, even if they disagree. The problems they encounter in work and life are faced and dealt with as constructively as possible. They are likely to ‘succeed’ in life within the limits they’ve set themselves, finding satisfaction with work and relationships, and tend to live long, healthy lives.

I’M OK, YOU’RE NOT OK (I+ U-)

This is sometimes referred to as the get rid of position. It is characterised by feelings of anger, fury and hostility. Others are seen as inferior, unworthy, incompetent, wrong and not to be trusted. Behaviour to others is characterised by such things as spite, victimisation, trapping, condescension, abuse and disregard. They may devote much time to the destruction of the sense of self-worth of others. As well as putting others down, they over-inflate their own self-worth, deny personal problems and find it difficult to give positive strokes. At work they are highly competitive and climb over others at whatever cost to achieve power and status. In wider social terms this is the life position of those who exploit their fellow man, or of those who take dogmatic views, believing theirs to be the only right course. In extreme cases they are homicidal (You are so “not OK”, there’s no point to your living’)

I’M NOR OK, YOU’RE OK (I- U+)

This is referred to as the get away from position and is typified by feelings such as sadness, inadequacy, stupidity or a sense of being ugly. In this position, people experience themselves as inferior or powerless in relation to others. They put themselves down and find it difficult to accept positive strokes, even being suspicious of them. In relation to work, they undervalue their potential and skills and they avoid or withdraw from difficult situations and problems. In life generally, they don’t succeed, are unhappy, often ill and/or depressed and in extreme cases commit suicide (I’m so useless I may as well not live’)